Citizenship by descent is a way to obtain citizenship based on your ancestral lineage rather than your place of birth or long-term residence. Under the principle of jus sanguinis (“right of blood”), many countries grant citizenship to individuals who have a parent (or sometimes more distant ancestor) who was a citizen. This contrasts with birthright citizenship (jus soli or “right of soil”), where citizenship is conferred by being born on a country’s territory, and with naturalization, which requires an immigrant to live in a country and meet certain conditions (such as residency duration or integration requirements).

In essence, citizenship by descent acknowledges an existing familial connection to a nation, whereas naturalization and jus soli create a new connection through birthplace or residency.

Who Can Qualify for Citizenship by Descent?

Eligibility for citizenship by descent depends on each country’s laws, but generally you must have a parent who was a citizen of that country at the time of your birth. In many cases, if one of your parents is a citizen (even if you were born abroad), you automatically or inherently qualify to claim that citizenship. Some countries extend eligibility to further generations – for example, allowing grandchildren or even great-grandchildren of citizens to apply. However, there is usually a generational limit: most nations permit claims up to one or two generations removed (parents or grandparents), and only a few programs reach more distant ancestors.

Adopted children typically have the same rights as biological children under jus sanguinis, provided the adoption is legally recognized and occurred when the child was a minor. For instance, Germany confers citizenship to a child adopted by a German citizen (if the adoption is completed before the child’s 18th birthday). Similarly, many countries allow citizenship by descent through adoption, so long as official adoption procedures are met.

Most citizenship-by-descent programs do not require the applicant to already speak the country’s language or reside there, since the citizenship claim is based on lineage. Unlike naturalization, you often don’t need to pass language or history tests. For example, Romania does not require language proficiency for descendants reclaiming citizenship, and it permits dual citizenship. That said, some exceptions exist – a few countries impose modest language or cultural knowledge requirements, especially if the ancestral link is more remote. (Portugal, for instance, asks for basic Portuguese language ability when claiming citizenship through a grandparent.) Each country sets its own criteria on how many generations back you can claim and whether any additional conditions (like language, cultural ties, or age limits) apply.

Eligibility criteria usually include: proving you have at least one qualifying ancestor (parent, and in some cases a grandparent or earlier) from that country, and demonstrating an unbroken chain of citizenship between that ancestor and yourself. It’s crucial that none of your ancestors in the direct line renounced or lost their original citizenship before passing it to the next generation, otherwise the chain might be considered broken. Age is generally not a barrier for the applicant (adults and children alike can claim ancestry citizenship).

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The Benefits of Citizenship by Descent

Obtaining citizenship by descent is often the easiest and most cost-effective route to a second passport. Since you are essentially activating a right you were born with, the process is usually cheaper, faster, and less burdensome than traditional naturalization or investment programs. Here are some key benefits:

• Simplified Process and Lower Cost. In many cases, you avoid lengthy residency requirements or expensive investments. The process mainly involves paperwork to prove your family ties, making it more straightforward and affordable than other paths.
• Dual Citizenship Opportunities. Citizenship by descent often allows you to hold dual citizenship. Most countries today (especially in Europe) permit you to retain your original citizenship while adding the new one, giving you the advantages of both. This means you likely do not have to renounce your current citizenship to take up the new nationality (though it’s wise to confirm both countries’ policies).
• Visa-Free Travel and Mobility. A second passport can significantly expand your travel freedom. For example, a European Union passport grants visa-free access and the right to live, work, or study in all 27 EU member states. Similar benefits apply in other regions – holding an additional citizenship may open travel to countries that were previously restricted with your original passport.
• Right to Live, Work, and Study Abroad. As a citizen, you gain the right to reside and seek employment or business opportunities in that country (and if it’s an EU country, throughout the EU). You can also take advantage of educational opportunities, such as attending universities often at citizen tuition rates. An EU citizen, for instance, can enjoy access to high-quality, low-cost education and public healthcare across member countries.
• Enhanced Economic and Personal Security. A second citizenship diversifies your opportunities. It allows you to invest, buy property, or start a business in another country more easily. It can also serve as a safety net – providing a stable homeland in times of political or economic uncertainty in your primary country.
• Pass Citizenship to Future Generations. Perhaps one of the most rewarding benefits is the ability to pass on your ancestral citizenship to your children. Once you secure citizenship by descent, your children (and future descendants) can usually inherit that citizenship by blood as well, ensuring your heritage benefits your family line.

In summary, citizenship by descent grants a broad range of personal freedoms and opportunities: you can expand your global footprint, access new markets and careers, improve your quality of life (with better healthcare or education options), and deepen your connection with your ancestral culture. All of this usually comes with relatively little downside, as you can keep your existing citizenship and simply enjoy the new rights alongside it.

Countries Where You Can Get Citizenship by Ancestry

As of 2026, more than 50 countries worldwide offer some form of citizenship by ancestry. This includes many European nations, numerous countries in the Americas, as well as some in Asia and Africa.

Here is a table, showing countries offering citizenship by ancestry, grouped by region:

Generally, any country that practices jus sanguinis (citizenship by blood) will grant citizenship to the children of its citizens, even if born abroad, and some extend this to further generations of descendants under certain conditions. Below we provide an overview by region and then highlight nine notable European countries known for their robust citizenship-by-descent programs.

1. Europe. Almost all European countries recognize citizenship by descent. Children born to nationals of these countries usually inherit citizenship automatically. Many European countries also allow second-generation (grandchildren) or further removed descendants to apply. For example, Italy historically had no generational limit (recently updated), Ireland allows grandchildren (and even great-grandchildren in specific cases), and countries like Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria permit claims up to the great-grandparent level. We’ll discuss the top EU programs in detail shortly.
2. America. Most countries in the America (North, Central, South America, and the Caribbean) confer citizenship to the children of their citizens abroad. For instance, if your parent is Mexican, Brazilian, or Canadian, you can typically claim citizenship regardless of where you were born. Some Latin American nations also have special provisions for grandchildren of citizens: e.g. Argentina and Italy have an agreement for easier residency for descendants of Italian emigrants (though not direct citizenship), and many Latin countries simply follow the rule that if one parent is a citizen, the child can be one. (Note that virtually all American countries also have birthright citizenship by being born on their soil, but that’s jus soli, a different concept.)
3. Asia and Africa. In Asia and Africa, citizenship laws vary widely, but many countries primarily use jus sanguinis as well. For example, Israel’s Law of Return offers an expedited citizenship to those of Jewish descent globally. Countries like the Philippines, Turkey, and India grant citizenship by descent to children of their citizens (India requires registration and has some restrictions). In Africa, countries such as Nigeria or Ghana recognize descent for at least one generation; some have diaspora initiatives inviting descendants of emigrants to return. Generally, if you have a parent from an Asian or African country, you can often claim citizenship, though dual citizenship acceptance and generational limits differ per country.

Next, we focus on the top 9 European countries offering citizenship by descent, which are especially popular due to their sizable diasporas and attractive benefits (like EU citizenship). Each of these countries has its own rules on eligibility and process.

Italian Citizenship by Descent

Italy has long been famous for its generous citizenship-by-descent policy, known as jure sanguinis. Traditionally, Italy allowed an unlimited generational line of descent: as long as you could prove an unbroken chain of Italian citizenship from an Italian ancestor (who was alive after Italy’s unification in 1861 and never renounced Italian citizenship before having their child), you could claim Italian citizenship, no matter how many generations back. This meant many people of Italian heritage around the world qualified, and it led to millions of dual Italian citizens globally.

However, Italian law has recently changed. In March 2025, Italy implemented new rules that limit eligibility for citizenship by descent. Under the current law, you can claim Italian citizenship by descent only if at least one of your parents or grandparents was an Italian citizen born in Italy, or if your parent (who later became an Italian citizen) had resided in Italy for at least two years before your birth. Essentially, the right now generally extends to one generation (parents) or two generations (grandparents) back. Applications that were filed before the law change are being processed under the old no-limit rules, but new applicants are subject to the tighter criteria.

Despite the stricter rules, Italy’s program remains very valuable. If you qualify, you gain Italian citizenship, which is also EU citizenship, granting you the freedom to live and work anywhere in the EU. Italy allows dual citizenship, so you don’t have to give up your current passport. There are some unique aspects to Italian law, such as the “1948 cases” – because before 1948, Italian women could not pass citizenship to children, those who only have an Italian maternal line must go through a special court process to be recognized. This adds complexity, but many have successfully obtained Italian citizenship through judicial petitions in such cases.

In summary, if you have recent Italian ancestry (parent or grandparent born in Italy), Italy offers a relatively straightforward path to citizenship – typically requiring proof of the lineage with birth, marriage, and naturalization records. Applications can be submitted through Italian consulates worldwide, though due to high demand the wait times can be lengthy (sometimes years). Once recognized, you enjoy all the benefits of being an Italian (and EU) citizen.

Irish Citizenship by Descent

Ireland’s citizenship by descent is well-known and fairly accessible, especially for those of Irish heritage abroad. If one of your parents was an Irish citizen born in Ireland, you are automatically an Irish citizen from birth. Even if you were born outside Ireland, having an Irish-born parent entitles you to Irish citizenship (you can simply apply for an Irish passport by proving your parent’s birth and identity).

If one of your grandparents was born in Ireland, you are also eligible, but the process is a bit different. You would need to register in the Foreign Births Register (FBR) to be officially recognized as an Irish citizen. The Foreign Births Register is the mechanism by which Ireland grants citizenship to grandchildren of Irish-born citizens. Essentially, you provide documents for your grandparent (Irish birth certificate), your parent (birth certificate showing connection to grandparent), and yourself, and once your FBR application is approved, you become an Irish citizen.

Ireland even has provisions, in exceptional cases, for great-grandchildren of Irish-born individuals. If your great-grandparent was Irish, but neither your grandparents nor parents were born in Ireland, you might still qualify IF the intermediate generation took action: for example, if your parent or grandparent had registered themselves in the Foreign Births Register before you were born, then you could claim through that line. There’s also a concept sometimes called “citizenship by association” for Irish ancestry: in very rare cases, a person with an Irish great-grandparent who has developed a strong connection to Ireland (through residency and community involvement) can appeal to the Minister for Justice for citizenship. This is discretionary and requires demonstrating a “substantial connection” to Ireland along with some residence in Ireland.

Notably, Ireland’s process does not require any residency in Ireland or knowledge of Irish Gaelic. It’s purely based on lineage documentation. Ireland also allows dual citizenship freely. The benefit of Irish (EU) citizenship is tremendous global mobility and the right to live anywhere in the EU. Ireland’s popularity stems from the vast Irish diaspora; millions of people in the UK, US, Canada, Australia and elsewhere have an Irish grandparent and take advantage of this law. The application process via Foreign Births Register can take time (often 1-2 years due to backlogs), but once approved, you can pass Irish citizenship to your children as well (if you register your child’s birth in the FBR if they are one further generation born abroad).

German Citizenship by Descent

Germany’s citizenship law is primarily based on descent – being born on German soil doesn’t automatically confer citizenship unless specific conditions are met. Instead, having a German parent is what conveys German citizenship (Deutsches Staatsangehörigkeit). In general, if at least one of your parents was a German citizen at the time of your birth, you are likely a German citizen by birth, regardless of where you were born. This rule has been in place since the early 20th century (with some historical gender-based caveats: before 1975, only German fathers could automatically pass citizenship in many cases). Today, children born after 1975 acquire German citizenship if either parent is German.

For those not automatically citizens, Germany also provides paths for certain descendants of former Germans to reclaim citizenship. A notable example is the special provision for descendants of victims of Nazi persecution: people whose German ancestors were forced to flee or were stripped of citizenship by the Nazi regime (for instance, Jewish families in the 1930s) can often have German citizenship restored to them under Article 116 of Germany’s Basic Law. This can extend to grandchildren or great-grandchildren of the victims. In recent years, Germany has even liberalized laws to cover more cases of descendants of German emigrants who lost citizenship – for example, children born to German mothers abroad who couldn’t pass citizenship under old laws can now claim it by declaration, and certain grandchildren of Germans who left Germany may also qualify under updated regulations.

It’s important to note that Germany typically does not have a broad “grandparent rule” for everyone: unlike Italy or Ireland, you cannot simply claim German citizenship because a grandparent was German, unless your parent also inherited that citizenship. In other words, the chain can’t be broken. If your parent did not inherit or lost German citizenship (say your grandparent became American and gave up German before your parent was born), then you can’t skip over that gap. But if you discover that one of your parents was in fact still considered a German citizen (sometimes people are surprised to learn they are already German through a parent), then you might already be a citizen or can be recognized as one.

Germany allows dual citizenship in cases of citizenship by descent (and for EU citizens). There is also an adoption provision: if you were adopted as a child by a German citizen (on or after 1977), you can obtain German citizenship automatically. The application for those who need to go through a formal process (like the Nazi descendent route) involves dealing with German consulates and providing proof of your ancestor’s status and the lineage. Language is generally not required for citizenship by descent (it’s different from naturalization by residency, where German language skill is needed). Once you have German citizenship, you gain EU citizenship rights as well, including free movement in Europe.

Polish Citizenship by Descent

Poland offers citizenship by descent to those who can prove they have Polish ancestry and that the Polish citizenship carried through each generation. In practice, you may be eligible if you have a Polish parent, grandparent, or even great-grandparent, as long as none of them formally renounced their Polish citizenship along the way. Polish law doesn’t set a strict generational cutoff; instead, it focuses on continuity of citizenship. This means if your ancestor was a Polish citizen (especially after Poland became independent in 1918) and passed that status to their child (your next ancestor), and so on to you, then in the eyes of Poland you might already be a Polish citizen – you just need to get it confirmed.

The process is commonly called “Confirmation of Polish Citizenship.” Applicants gather documents like birth certificates, marriage certificates, and any old Polish passports or military records of the ancestor, to show the chain of citizenship. Typically, it’s required that the ancestor was a Polish citizen after 1920 (when Poland’s first citizenship law was enacted) and that they did not become a citizen of another country before having the child through whom you’re related (because Poland, in the past, would consider that a loss of Polish citizenship). One key year is 1951 – Poland changed its laws then, so often the analysis will be whether ancestors left Poland before or after certain dates and under what circumstances. It can get complex, so many applicants hire legal specialists in Polish nationality law to navigate the rules.

If confirmed, Polish citizenship gives you the right to a Polish passport and all EU citizenship benefits. Poland allows dual citizenship (though Polish law might still view you solely as a Polish citizen internally). No language test or residency is required for this route – it’s purely about proving descent. People from the Polish diaspora (for example, families that emigrated to the US, Canada, UK, Australia, etc. in the 1900s) frequently use this to reconnect with their roots. Do note that any name changes or discrepancies in documents (common with transliteration from Polish) must be reconciled carefully, as Polish authorities are strict about documentation being consistent. Once you have your citizenship certificate, you can register your vital records in Poland and obtain a passport.

Many people don’t even realize that their family roots can open the path to a European passport. If you want to find out whether you have such eligibility, simply submit a request for a free consultation. The experts at MyCitizensAgency will conduct a full ancestry check, explain your possible options for obtaining citizenship by descent, and create a personalized action plan. We’ll help you start the process with confidence and without mistakes.

Spanish Citizenship by Descent

Spain’s standard nationality law grants citizenship by descent to the children of Spanish citizens. So if you have a Spanish mother or father, you can typically claim Spanish citizenship (with some procedural steps if you were born abroad). For grandchildren, Spain historically was more limited, but recent laws have expanded opportunities for them under specific circumstances.

In 2022, Spain passed the Law of Democratic Memory, often nicknamed the “Grandchildren Law,” which created new pathways for the grandchildren (and even great-grandchildren) of Spanish nationals to obtain citizenship. This law aims to address historical injustices, particularly for descendants of those who were exiled or emigrated during and after the Spanish Civil War and Franco dictatorship. Under this law, individuals born outside Spain can apply for Spanish citizenship by option if their father, mother, grandfather or grandmother was originally Spanish and had lost or been forced to renounce Spanish citizenship due to exile or persecution. For example, many people in Latin America whose grandparents fled Spain in the 1930s–1950s are now eligible to become Spanish citizens. Another provision covers descendants of Spanish women who lost their citizenship by marrying a foreigner before 1978 (when Spain’s constitution ended that discriminatory practice) – their children or grandchildren can now reclaim Spanish nationality.

Additionally, those whose parents gained Spanish citizenship through previous historical laws (like the 2007 Law of Historical Memory, which was an earlier “grandchildren” initiative mostly for children of exiles) but were unable to themselves apply (perhaps because they were minors at the time) got a new chance to apply under the 2022 law.

It’s important to note that these special provisions have time windows – for instance, the applications under the 2022 Grandchildren Law were only open for a limited period (two years, potentially extendable). As of 2026, that window may be closed or closing, depending on extensions, so eligible applicants had to act promptly.

For the regular cases (child of a Spaniard born abroad), Spain does require the person to declare their wish to retain Spanish citizenship by a certain age if they were born abroad and have another nationality (usually by age 21). Spain generally allows dual citizenship with Latin American countries (and a few others) but officially expects others to renounce (in practice this renunciation is often not enforced strictly for these historical cases).

Claiming Spanish citizenship might involve providing proof of your Spanish ancestor (birth certificate from Spain, etc.), proof of the relationship, and in the special exile cases, documentation that the ancestor left or lost citizenship for the qualifying reason. There is typically no language or residency requirement for these options – it is an entitlement by law. The reward is Spanish (and EU) citizenship, with all associated rights.

British Citizenship by Descent

The United Kingdom grants British citizenship by descent mainly to those born abroad to a British citizen parent. If you were born outside the UK and one of your parents was a British citizen “otherwise than by descent” (meaning they were British by birth in UK, or by naturalization/registration, not also by descent), then you automatically are a British citizen by descent. This is the first generation rule: in most cases, British citizenship can only be passed down one generation for children born abroad.

Britain does not have a broad provision to claim citizenship through grandparents in the same way Ireland or Italy do. There is no direct “grandparent citizenship” law for the UK. However, people with a UK-born grandparent who are citizens of a Commonwealth country have a different route: the UK Ancestry Visa. This is a visa (not immediate citizenship) that allows a Commonwealth citizen with a UK-born grandparent to live and work in the UK and later qualify for citizenship through residency. It’s often used by e.g. Canadians, Australians, etc., who had a British grandparent – but it requires moving to the UK for five years and then applying for naturalization.

That said, British nationality law is complex, and there are some exceptions where a grandparent can lead to citizenship: often called “double descent” cases. For example, a person with a British-born grandfather might have a claim if their parent could have qualified but didn’t register, or in cases involving children born to UK mothers or out of wedlock in times when the law was gender-biased (historical injustices). In recent years the UK introduced remedies for those – such as allowing people born before 1983 to a British mother to register as citizens (since before 1983 only fathers could pass citizenship automatically). These are not automatic but are legal application routes. UK immigration firms refer to these as British citizenship by double descent (grandparent) and the criteria are very specific.

A key point about British citizenship by descent is that if you are a British citizen by descent, you cannot normally pass that citizenship to your own children born outside the UK. For instance, suppose you were born in the USA to a UK-born mother – you are British by descent. If you then also have a child in the USA, that child will not be British (because you, the British parent, are by descent and the birth is abroad). The only way your child would get British citizenship is if you (the parent) had lived in the UK for at least 3 years before the child’s birth, or if you register the child under a specific provision. This limitation is somewhat unique to the UK and is important to consider for long-term family planning.

In practical terms, to claim British citizenship by descent, one typically presents proof of the British parent’s status (e.g. their UK birth certificate or passport) and your own birth certificate showing the connection. If going for one of the special “double descent” scenarios, additional proof of the grandparent’s birth and possibly evidence of why the parent did not pass it on is required, which can get legally intricate. It’s often advisable to consult a UK nationality lawyer for those cases. No language test or life in the UK test is needed for citizenship by descent claims – those are for residency-based naturalization.

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Romanian Citizenship by Descent

Romania provides one of the more expansive ancestry citizenship programs in Europe, largely aimed at reconnecting with descendants of those who lost Romanian citizenship in the turbulent 20th century. Under Romanian law, if you have a Romanian parent, grandparent, or great-grandparent who was a Romanian citizen, you can apply to restore or obtain Romanian citizenship by descent. In practice, this has famously benefited many people from Moldova and other areas that were once part of Romania – they use Article 10 or 11 of the Romanian citizenship law to reclaim nationality that their family lost when borders shifted or regimes changed.

Key points: If your ancestor (up to great-grandparent) was a Romanian citizen but later lost that citizenship (for example, due to moving abroad or due to Soviet-era changes), you are eligible to apply even if you or your parents never lived in Romania. If it was a parent or grandparent, the process is direct; if it’s a great-grandparent, often the parent or grandparent generation needs to have their citizenship restored first, then you apply (Romania sometimes prefers the link not be skipped, though in practice applications can bundle multiple generations together).

A big advantage of Romania’s program is no language requirement – currently, you do not need to speak Romanian to get citizenship by descent (though basic familiarity is encouraged). Romania also explicitly allows dual citizenship, so you can keep your other nationality. The requirements are mostly documentation-based: you must provide birth certificates, marriage certificates, and other records proving your lineage to the Romanian ancestor, and proof of that ancestor’s Romanian citizenship (historically). This could be old passports, IDs, or archive records. All documents not already in Romanian must be translated and apostilled. The application is submitted to the Romanian Authority for Citizenship, and there’s often a waiting period of a year or more for approval.

Once you’re approved and take the oath, you become a Romanian (and EU) citizen with full rights. Many thousands of people have successfully used this route in recent decades. One thing to be mindful of is that Romanian bureaucracy can be slow, and rules can adjust (for instance, there have been discussions at times about reintroducing a language test, though as of latest updates it hasn’t materialized). Staying informed or using legal counsel can help ensure a smooth process.

Slovenian Citizenship by Descent

Slovenia, a smaller EU country, offers citizenship by descent to individuals with Slovenian ancestry, and it has some unique provisions. If you were born to at least one Slovene parent, you automatically obtain Slovenian citizenship at birth (jus sanguinis applies with no generational limit parent-to-child, even if born abroad). So first generation descent is straightforward.

For those with more distant Slovenian roots (e.g., Slovene grandparents or further back), Slovenia allows a discretionary process to acquire citizenship by origin (izvajanje državljanstva po rodu). The general rule is that descendants up to the second generation abroad (i.e., you have a parent or grandparent who was Slovenian) can apply for citizenship by descent by application. When applying through ancestry, you need to prove your Slovenian lineage, typically through documents of your Slovene parents or grandparents – birth certificates, marriage certificates, etc., showing a direct chain to a Slovene citizen. You also have to provide a statement of good conduct (no serious criminal record).

Slovenia does not require you to renounce other citizenships, and it does not mandate Slovenian language fluency for this ancestry-based acquisition. However, demonstrating some connection to Slovenian culture or community can strengthen an application, especially for those applying under the extraordinary naturalization (for older generations) – for example, participation in Slovene diaspora communities or language courses is looked upon favorably.

One notable aspect: historically, many Slovenians emigrated (for instance, to the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia). Slovenia’s law tries to balance openness with preventing abuse, hence the generation and age rules. If you do qualify, Slovenian citizenship grants you EU citizenship rights. The process involves submitting your application to the Slovene authorities (often via a consulate abroad), with all supporting documents properly legalized and translated into Slovene. Professional assistance is often useful to navigate the paperwork. Slovenia is keen to welcome back those of Slovenian heritage, and with the right preparation, the process can be quite smooth.

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Bulgarian Citizenship by Descent

Bulgaria allows those with Bulgarian heritage up to the third generation to obtain citizenship by origin (произход). Thanks to amendments made in 2021, if you can prove you have a Bulgarian parent, grandparent, or great-grandparent, you are eligible to apply for Bulgarian citizenship on the basis of origin. In other words, Bulgaria’s generational limit is great-grandparent (three generations), similar to Poland or Romania’s scope.

The process for Bulgarian citizenship by descent requires you to demonstrate “Bulgarian origin.” This typically means showing that your ancestor was a Bulgarian citizen or at least ethnic Bulgarian from Bulgarian territory. Applicants must gather evidence such as the birth certificates of the ancestor and each link in the chain, documents that prove the ancestor’s Bulgarian citizenship or ethnicity, and documents proving their family relation to that ancestor. As of the 2021 changes, an old step – obtaining a Certificate of Bulgarian Origin from the State Agency for Bulgarians Abroad – was eliminated to streamline the process. Now, you directly submit your proof of origin with your citizenship application to the Ministry of Justice, rather than getting a preliminary certificate.

Like other EU countries, Bulgaria allows dual citizenship for those who acquire citizenship by descent. There’s no requirement to renounce your existing citizenship. Language proficiency in Bulgarian is not required for descendants (it is required for regular naturalization, but ancestry-based applicants are usually exempt). The motivations behind Bulgaria’s law are partly demographic – to bring back people of Bulgarian descent as the country’s population has been shrinking. This means authorities are generally supportive of genuine applicants who can show the familial ties.

Once you prepare the documents (which might involve international archive searches if, say, your grandparents were born in Bulgaria but emigrated decades ago), you apply through a Bulgarian embassy or directly in Bulgaria. Processing can take a year or more. Upon approval, you would attend a ceremony to swear an oath to Bulgaria. After that, you can get a Bulgarian passport, giving you EU freedom of movement and the right to live in any EU country.

How to Apply for Citizenship by Descent: Step-by-Step Guide

Applying for citizenship by descent is largely a document-driven process. While each country has its own specific procedures, the overall steps are similar. Here is a general step-by-step guide:

1. Confirm Your Eligibility. Research the citizenship laws of the country of your ancestors to ensure you qualify. Identify which ancestor (parent, grandparent, etc.) gives you the claim and verify that no legal obstacles (like renunciation or generational limits) block your path. This often involves determining if your ancestor was indeed a citizen and if they maintained that status until the next in line was born. If you have multiple ancestral options (e.g. one Italian grandparent and one Polish great-grandparent), consider which country’s rules are more favorable – an immigration attorney or official resources can help interpret the laws.
2. Gather Ancestral Records. This is usually the most labor-intensive step. You will need official documents for each link in your family chain, starting from the qualifying ancestor down to you. Key documents include birth certificates, marriage certificates, and sometimes death certificates for each generation, as well as documents evidencing your ancestor’s citizenship (such as their old passport, identity card, naturalization record, or citizenship certificate). Ensure the names, dates, and places align across all documents; any discrepancies (name spellings, etc.) may require additional proof or affidavits to explain. If some documents are missing or hard to find, you may need to contact national archives, local churches, or civil registries in the country of origin to retrieve baptismal records or other evidence.
3. Authenticate and Translate Your Documents. Documents issued in one country often need to be officially recognized in the other country’s legal system. This usually means getting an apostille stamp on each document (for countries in the Hague Apostille Convention) or obtaining consular legalization if apostilles don’t apply. Additionally, any document that is not already in the official language of the country you’re applying to must be translated by a certified translator. Both the original and the translation are submitted. Make sure the translations are accurate and that the translator’s certification is included, as errors here can cause delays.
4. Submit Your Application. Once your dossier is complete, you will submit the application through the appropriate channel. This could be the country’s embassy/consulate in your current country or a specific citizenship office within the country. The application typically includes forms to fill out with your personal information and family tree, and you’ll attach all the supporting documents, plus passport copies, ID photos, and the required fee. Some countries might require you to make an appointment to lodge the application, especially if an interview or oath is part of the process. At submission, ensure you provide everything requested, since missing documents are a common cause of delays or rejections.
5. Wait for Processing. Now comes the patience part. Processing times can vary widely by country and workload. It might be as short as a few months or over a year. For example, Ireland’s Foreign Births Register has taken 12–18 months in recent years, Italy’s consular applications can take 2–4 years due to backlogs, while countries like Poland or Germany often take around 1–2 years. During this period, the authorities will verify your documents, possibly consult archives, and confirm the legal criteria are met. In some cases, they might reach out for additional information or clarification, so be sure to keep your contact information up to date and respond promptly to any requests.
6. Receive Your Citizenship Decision. If all goes well, you will be issued an official confirmation of citizenship. The format may differ – some countries provide a certificate of citizenship or a declaration/letter that you have become a citizen. Others might directly enable you to register for a national ID or passport. In certain cases, there is an oath of allegiance ceremony (for example, Romania usually requires new citizens to attend a ceremony to finalize the process). Once you have the proof of citizenship, you can proceed to apply for a passport of that country and enjoy your new status.

Throughout this process, attention to detail is crucial. It’s advisable to keep copies of everything you submit, and tracking numbers of shipments, etc. If the process seems overwhelming, consider hiring a lawyer experienced in citizenship by descent – they can guide you on specifics like locating foreign records or ensuring your documents meet all requirements.

Required Documents for Citizenship by Descent

While exact document requirements differ by country, most applications will require a similar set of core records to establish your ancestry and identity. Common required documents include:

• Vital Records Proving Lineage. These are birth, marriage, and death certificates that connect each generation from you to the ancestor in question. For example, if applying through a grandparent, you’d provide your birth certificate, your parent’s birth certificate (showing the grandparent as parent), and your grandparent’s birth certificate. Marriage certificates are needed to show name changes (especially if a female ancestor’s last name changed through marriage). Every link must be documented so the chain is clear.
• Proof of Ancestor’s Citizenship. You must show that your ancestor was actually a citizen of the country. This could be their old passport or national ID, a certificate of naturalization/citizenship, entries from a national registry, or other official proof from that era. If such documents are unavailable, sometimes secondary evidence like military service records, census records or property documents from the home country can help establish the person’s nationality. In some applications (e.g., Polish, Romanian), proving the ancestor’s citizenship at a certain date is a strict requirement.
• Your Personal Documents. Your own birth certificate and passport (or ID) are required. If you’ve changed your name (e.g., through marriage or otherwise), those documents (marriage certificate, legal name change decree) should be included so that all documents can be cross-linked to the same person.
• Criminal Record / Good Conduct Certificate. Some countries ask applicants to provide a police clearance certificate from their current country of residence (and/or any country they’ve lived in) to show they don’t have serious criminal history. This is more common when the process is considered a form of naturalization (like Slovenia’s discretionary route required no serious criminal record). Many countries don’t require it for direct jus sanguinis claims, but be prepared in case it’s asked.
• Others. A proof of address, passport-sized photos, and the application forms themselves will be needed. Occasionally, a country might request a family tree chart or a written biography. If any ancestor’s records are in old handwriting or another alphabet, providing a transcribed version can be helpful.

Importantly, all documents must be official (certified copies or originals) and often must be authenticated and translated. Apostilles or notarizations are typically needed to prove the foreign documents are genuine. Translations must be done by certified translators into the destination country’s language. It’s also wise to provide more documentation than less, if available – for instance, some applications are strengthened by including things like old family correspondence, church baptismal records, or citizenship cards, even if not explicitly listed, to preempt questions about spelling variations or missing data.

Before submission, double-check that names and dates match across all documents. If your ancestor was “Ivan” in one record and “John” in another (common when immigrants anglicized names), get a professional affidavit or official note explaining that they are the same person. Small inconsistencies can lead to big delays if not addressed.

Special Limitations of Citizenship by Descent

Citizenship by descent can come with a few special limitations or conditions to be aware of:

• Generational Limits. As discussed, you can only go back a certain number of generations as allowed by law. If your ancestry is too far back (beyond the country’s cutoff), you won’t qualify directly. For example, someone with a great-great-grandparent from a country that only allows up to great-grandparent would not be eligible. Always verify the current generational limit.
• Unbroken Chain Requirement. Most countries require that citizenship was passed down continuously. If an ancestor in the chain renounced citizenship or became a citizen of another country before having the next generation, the chain of citizenship by descent is considered broken. For instance, if your grandfather was Polish but gave up Polish citizenship before your mother was born, your mother might not have inherited Polish citizenship, which means you can’t claim it through him. There are exceptions for involuntary loss (e.g., loss due to persecution or legal quirks), but voluntary renunciation typically stops transmission.
• “Citizen by Descent” Status and Its Limits. In some countries, being granted citizenship by descent classifies you legally as a “citizen by descent” which can have a specific implication: you might have full citizenship rights except the ability to pass it automatically to children born abroad (as we saw with the UK case). It’s good to understand if your new citizenship will be considered “by descent” and whether that carries any restrictions. In the UK and some Commonwealth contexts, a citizen by descent cannot automatically transmit citizenship to the next generation born overseas, whereas a citizen “otherwise than by descent” can. Other European countries generally don’t differentiate this way once you’re recognized; your kids would typically inherit it normally.
• Dual Citizenship Restrictions. While many countries allow dual citizenship, a few do not. If the country of your ancestry prohibits dual citizenship (or your original country does), you might be forced to make a choice. For example, Austria and Japan generally do not allow dual citizenship – so if one were claiming Austrian citizenship by descent, they might have to renounce their other nationality (Austria has very limited exceptions). Always check dual citizenship policies to avoid unintended loss of your current citizenship. Fortunately, the majority of countries that offer ancestry citizenship (especially in Europe and the Americas) do permit dual citizenship for those reclaiming heritage.
• Residency or Post-Grant Conditions. Normally, citizenship by descent doesn’t require you to move to that country. But a few countries have quirks – for example, India doesn’t allow dual citizenship but offers an Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) status to descendants, which isn’t full citizenship. Some countries might require an oath of allegiance in-country.
• Time-Bound Opportunities. Certain ancestry-based citizenship programs are only open for a set time or have changing criteria. Spain’s “grandchildren” law, as noted, had a limited window. Another example: Portugal had a program for descendants of Sephardic Jews with Portuguese heritage – a window that was open for a few years and then tightened in 2022. These laws can change with political winds, meaning the opportunity may not be permanent. If you qualify under a special law, it’s prudent to apply sooner rather than later.

In essence, while citizenship by descent is extremely beneficial, it’s not without fine print. Understanding these limitations beforehand helps in planning – for instance, you may decide to have a child’s birth in the ancestral country to ensure they get citizenship, or you might expedite your application before a law changes. If unsure, consulting with a legal expert in nationality law can clarify your status and any caveats.

Common Challenges of Citizenship by Descent and How to Avoid Them

Pursuing citizenship by descent can present various challenges. Here are some common issues applicants face, and tips to avoid or overcome them.

Missing or Incomplete Documentation

One of the biggest hurdles is obtaining all the required records, especially if they are decades (or centuries) old. Many people find that their ancestor’s birth or marriage certificate is difficult to locate, or names on documents don’t match due to translations and changes over time.

How to avoid/fix: Begin your document search early and be thorough. Use all resources available – national archives, church/parish records, immigration entry records, even genealogy databases – to piece together the evidence. If documents are truly unavailable (e.g., destroyed in a war), some countries accept secondary evidence or affidavits, but you may need legal guidance on presenting a convincing case. Double-check all documents for consistency; if your great-grandfather’s name is spelled three different ways in various records, prepare a notarized affidavit explaining the variations, rather than leaving it to an official to guess. Meticulous document preparation is key to preventing delays.

Language Barriers and Legalization Requirements

Dealing with foreign bureaucracies means dealing with foreign languages. You might receive a birth certificate in Latin or Cyrillic script, or need to communicate with a civil registry in a language you don’t speak. Additionally, every document likely needs an apostille or legalization and translation.

How to avoid/fix: Consider hiring professional translators and, if needed, genealogists or local researchers in the country of origin. They can bridge the language gap when corresponding with local offices. Always follow the authentication guidelines precisely – for example, if a document needs an apostille, get it before translating, as the apostille itself may need translation. Using certified translators for all documents will ensure accuracy and acceptance by authorities. Don’t try to do unofficial translations yourself; many applications get held up because a translation wasn’t properly certified. If the process is confusing, embassies often provide guidance on required steps – don’t hesitate to ask them for the official checklist.

Changing Citizenship Laws

As mentioned, laws can and do change. Applicants might find that requirements become stricter with little warning – like Italy’s sudden limitation to grandchildren in 2025, or proposals to require language tests where none existed.

How to avoid/fix: The best defense is to stay informed and act promptly. Once you confirm you’re eligible under current law, try to submit your application as soon as you reasonably can, so you can be “grandfathered” under those rules if changes occur. Keep an eye on news from that country’s government or consult experts. If you hear of a potential change (for example, a bill in parliament that could affect your eligibility), consider filing before it takes effect. In some cases, even if a law changes, those already in process might be judged by the old rules. Thus, timing can be critical. If a law unfortunately changes and you’re no longer eligible, sometimes there are legal challenges or alternative routes – for instance, an Italian constitutional challenge to the 2025 law is underway. A lawyer could advise if any options remain.

Long Processing Times

Patience is often required – some applicants wait years for a determination. Backlogs are common, especially for popular programs like Italy, Ireland, or Mexico (for Spanish descendants).

How to avoid/fix: While you can’t control a government agency’s speed, you can control submitting a complete and correct application, which avoids additional delays due to requests for more info. Some people choose to apply in the country itself rather than through an overseas consulate if that option is available, as it can be faster. For example, Italy allows applying at a municipality in Italy (which can be quicker than waiting on a busy consulate). In other cases, there are facilitators or attorneys who can monitor your application status and gently prompt when appropriate. Just be mentally prepared that this is not an overnight process; building a realistic timeline (often 1-2 years, depending on the country) will manage expectations. Plan life events (like travel or moving) around the fact that you might need to attend an oath ceremony or pick up the passport at some point down the line.

Proving Eligibility Across Generations

It’s one thing to suspect you have an Italian great-grandparent; it’s another to prove it to a legal certainty. Many find that proving lineage beyond immediate generations gets tricky – name changes, lost records, non-standard family situations (like children born out of wedlock or adopted).

How to avoid/fix: Meticulously reconstruct your family tree with documentation. If there are adoptions or illegitimacy in the line, research how the law views those (e.g., some laws didn’t allow passing citizenship through an unmarried father unless paternity was legally recognized – you might need to show that recognition). Provide every supporting piece of evidence that links one generation to the next (for example, if your grandmother’s birth certificate shows her mother’s maiden name, and it’s different from what you knew, make sure you also have the marriage certificate that links that maiden name to the married name on your mother’s birth certificate). In cases where evidence is scarce, affidavits from elder family members who can attest to family relationships might help, but they are usually supplemental, not replacements for official records. Essentially, think like a bureaucrat: would you be convinced of this lineage with the documents provided? If not, figure out what’s missing and try to obtain it or explain it.

Financial and Legal Costs

While getting citizenship by descent is cheaper than, say, investing hundreds of thousands in an economic citizenship program, there are still costs that can add up. Acquiring documents from around the world, paying for apostilles, translations, and possibly legal assistance or genealogy services can be expensive. Also, some countries have application fees.

How to avoid/fix: Plan a budget for the process. Many records from government archives might be obtained at low cost; prioritize getting those yourself or with family help. If hiring help, shop around for reputable but reasonably priced services – for example, some lawyers offer package deals for ancestry citizenship applications. Also, ensure you do things right the first time to avoid costly re-submissions. Sometimes a bit of professional advice upfront can save money by preventing mistakes. Lastly, be aware of hidden costs: travel (if you need to go to the consulate in person, or eventually travel to the country to finalize paperwork), postal fees, etc., and plan accordingly. In the end, the investment often pays off with a lifetime of benefits for you and your family.

In summary, diligent preparation and possibly professional guidance can overcome most of these challenges. Countless people have successfully obtained citizenship by descent despite initial obstacles, so with persistence and careful attention, you can navigate these challenges too.

Professional Assistance with Citizenship by Ancestry

Embarking on the journey of claiming citizenship by descent can be daunting, but you don’t have to do it alone. Professional assistance can significantly smooth out the process, ensuring that you meet all legal requirements and save time. Our team offers expert guidance and services for individuals seeking citizenship through ancestry.

Our citizenship-by-descent service covers numerous countries. We have successfully helped hundreds of clients obtain Italian, Polish, Irish, Romanian, and Slovenian citizenship by descent, among others. We stay up-to-date with the latest laws and procedural changes. This means if there’s a new opportunity (or a closing window) in a country’s policy, we will alert you and act swiftly. Our professionals liaise with foreign consulates and authorities on your behalf, reducing communication barriers and minimizing mistakes. From starting your application to the moment you hold your new passport, we manage each step, allowing you to focus on the exciting prospect of your new citizenship.

Choosing professional assistance brings peace of mind. It’s like having a knowledgeable guide through a complex legal maze.

In summary, our Citizenship by Descent Service streamlines your path to dual citizenship. We provide: an honest evaluation of your ancestral claims, hands-on help with document gathering (yes, we love digging through archives!), preparation of all legal paperwork, and representation in front of the relevant authorities. We pride ourselves on a high success rate and satisfied clients who now enjoy life as dual citizens. If you’re considering leveraging your ancestry to secure a second citizenship, especially if it’s European nationality, we are here to assist you every step of the way.

Ready to reconnect with your roots and expand your horizons? Contact us for a consultation, and let’s turn your family heritage into a tangible benefit for your future.

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Frequently Asked Questions about Citizenship by Descent

We have compiled answers to the most common questions about obtaining citizenship by descent. If you did not find the information you were looking for or want to learn more about the requirements, timelines, and benefits of citizenship by descent, contact us for a free consultation.

How is citizenship by descent different from naturalization?

Citizenship by descent means you are entitled to citizenship because of your bloodline – it’s inherited from a parent or ancestor. Naturalization, on the other hand, is a process for someone who isn’t automatically a citizen to become one (usually by living in the country for several years, passing tests, etc.). For example, if your mother is a citizen of Country X, you might automatically be a citizen of X by descent, or you can claim it with paperwork. But if you have no familial ties to Country X, you’d have to immigrate and naturalize (perhaps after 5+ years, language exams) to become a citizen. Descent is typically faster and doesn’t require living in the country or integrating the same way naturalization does. It’s a right by birth (even if claimed later in life), whereas naturalization is a privilege you earn by meeting requirements.

How many generations back can I claim citizenship by descent?

It depends on the country. Most commonly, you can claim through at least your parents (one generation) or grandparents (two generations). Many European countries allow claims through grandparents. Some countries extend to great-grandparents or beyond – for example, Poland and Bulgaria recognize lineage up to great-grandparent (third generation), and Romania explicitly includes great-grandchildren of former citizens (third generation). A few countries had even no limit historically (Italy allowed any generation until its 2025 change). Always check the specific law: if it says “up to the second generation,” that means grandparents; “third generation” includes great-grandparents, etc. If your ancestor is further back than allowed, you likely won’t qualify under current rules.

Do I need to speak the language or live in the country to get citizenship by descent?

In most cases, no, you don’t need to know the language or move there. Citizenship by descent is usually considered a right by blood, so countries don’t impose language or residency prerequisites like they do for naturalization. For instance, Ireland, Italy, and Poland have no language test for descent applicants, and you can apply from abroad at a consulate. Romania even notes that no language exam is required and allows dual nationality freely. However, there are some exceptions. A few countries ask for basic language ability or a demonstration of cultural ties, especially if you’re claiming through a grandparent or more distant ancestor. Portugal, for example, requires a basic A2 Portuguese proficiency for grandchildren of citizens. Israel’s Law of Return process expects one to integrate, which includes some Hebrew learning eventually.

Can I keep my current citizenship if I get a new one by descent (dual citizenship)?

In most cases, yes. The majority of countries that offer citizenship by descent allow dual citizenship. European Union countries, for example, overwhelmingly permit dual citizenship, especially for those gaining a citizenship by right of blood (they don’t ask you to renounce your original citizenship). So if you’re American and obtain Italian or Irish citizenship, the US has no issue with dual citizenship and neither do Italy/Ireland. There are a few countries with stricter rules – for example, if you’re Japanese or Singaporean, those countries might ask you to choose one citizenship by a certain age. But the ancestral country itself usually doesn’t force renunciation for descendants. It’s wise to double-check to avoid surprises, but dual citizenship is a common outcome of citizenship-by-descent cases.

How long does the process take to get citizenship by descent?

The timeline varies widely by country and by how complex your case is. In some smaller countries or less backlogged systems, it might be as fast as 6 months. In many popular countries, expect between 1 to 2 years from application to approval. For example, Ireland’s Foreign Births Register has been taking roughly 1 to 1.5 years recently, Poland about a year or a bit more for a confirmation, Germany perhaps around a year, and Spain’s recent grandchild applications were a year or two. Italy is known for being slower – Italian consulates often have waiting lists and the process can take 2–3 years or even longer (though hiring an attorney to pursue it through Italian courts or comune can speed it up somewhat). Romania might take around 1–2 years as well; after approval there’s an oath ceremony that might add a few months scheduling. To get a realistic idea, you should inquire with the specific consulate or others who have applied recently for that nationality.

Will my children also get citizenship if I do?

Generally, yes, your children can inherit the new citizenship, but the mechanism can differ depending on their birth details. If your children are minors at the time you get your citizenship by descent, many countries allow you to register them as citizens too pretty easily (because they’re under 18 and you’re now a citizen). Often it’s a matter of submitting their birth certificates showing the parent (you) is a citizen. If your children are born after you’ve obtained the citizenship, then by jus sanguinis they are usually automatically citizens by birth – you’d just report their birth and apply for their passport.

I was adopted – can I claim citizenship by descent from my adoptive parents’ lineage?

In many countries, yes, an adopted child is treated the same as a biological child for citizenship purposes, as long as the adoption is legally recognized and completed while the adoptee is a minor. Laws vary, but for instance, Germany grants citizenship to a child adopted by German parents (if the adoption happened under age 18). Italy also recognizes adopted minors as having the same rights (post-adoption) as birth children. Some countries might require that the adoption took place under certain conditions (e.g., the adoption must be full and irrevocable). If you were adopted as a baby or young child by a citizen, you often automatically acquire that citizenship. If not automatic, you usually can apply to be recognized.

What if my ancestor had to renounce their citizenship or lost it – can I still claim?

Usually, if an ancestor voluntarily renounced their citizenship or became a citizen of another country before the next generation was born, that breaks the chain of citizenship, meaning you typically cannot claim it through them. For example, if your grandfather was Italian but naturalized as an American before your father was born, then under Italian law your father did not inherit Italian citizenship, so you can’t either. However, if the loss was involuntary or due to persecution/changes in law, some countries make exceptions. For instance, Germany allows descendants of those who lost German citizenship under Nazi persecution to reclaim it. Poland and other countries require that ancestors did not renounce citizenship – if they did, unfortunately the claim ends there. Another scenario is if your ancestor’s country ceased to exist or sovereignty changed (e.g., a grandparent from a former Soviet republic) – then it depends on successor state laws.

Is hiring a lawyer or service necessary for applying, or can I do it myself?

It’s not strictly necessary to hire a lawyer; many people successfully apply on their own by following official guidelines. If your case is straightforward – say, one parent from the target country and you have all documents – doing it yourself is quite feasible. That said, there are scenarios where professional help is very beneficial: if you have to dig up old records abroad, deal with multiple languages, or navigate a complex case (like an obscure law or a border case of eligibility). Lawyers or specialized agencies have experience and can save you time and frustration, help avoid mistakes, and even expedite in certain jurisdictions by knowing the ropes.

Can your firm help me if I don’t have all the documents or don’t know where to start?

Absolutely. We can assist at every stage – even if all you have is a story from your grandma that her father came from Europe, we can help verify and build on that. Typically, we start with a consultation to gather what information you do have (names, dates, places, even anecdotes). From there, we can do a genealogical research to find the documentation. We have contacts with archives and use databases to locate things like birth records, ship manifests, naturalization papers, etc. We’ll then advise which documents are needed and obtain them. So even if you lack birth certificates or exact details, don’t be deterred – our job is to help uncover those.